Author : Bala Vignesh Ravi

Understanding Finite State Machines (FSMs): Types, Code & FAQs for Beginners

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 13, 2025 13+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 161725+00:0025+00:00Wed, 13 Aug 2025 04:17:16 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Understanding Finite State Machines (FSMs): Types, Code & FAQs for Beginners Description Learn what Finite State Machines are, explore their types like Moore and Mealy machines, view example Verilog code, and get answers to common FSM questions. Introduction Finite State Machines (FSMs) are a fundamental concept in digital design, forming the backbone of many real-time systems like vending machines, traffic controllers, and communication protocols. For engineering students and aspiring VLSI designers, mastering FSMs is essential for understanding sequential logic and hardware behaviour. This blog covers the core concepts of FSMs, their types, a sample Mealy machine code, and frequently asked questions. Core Sections What is a Finite State Machine (FSM)? A Finite State Machine is a sequential logic circuit that transitions between defined states based on input and clock signals. It has: Finite set of states Inputs and outputs State transition logic Clock and optional reset logic FSMs are widely used in digital design, embedded systems, and VLSI due to their predictability and structured behavior. Types of FSMs Moore Machine Output depends only on current state Simpler timing Outputs update after clock edge Example: Traffic light controller Mealy Machine Output depends on current state and input Faster output response Requires fewer states Example: Sequence detector Note: Hybrid FSMs combine both Moore and Mealy logic for optimized designs. Table differentiating types of FSM Type Output depends on Typical use‑cases Key point Moore machine Current state only Control units, pattern generators Simpler timing; outputs change after the clock edge. Mealy machine Current state and present input Sequence detectors, hand‑shaking circuits Fewer states; outputs may change inside the clock cycle. FSM Code Example Mealy Machine – Overlapping Sequence Detector InputDesign //Pantech e-learning //Mealy with overlapping code for the sequence 1101 module mealy( input clk,rst,din, output reg dout); typedef enum logic [1:0] {s0,s1,s2,s3}state_; state_ state,next; always @(*) begin next <= state; dout <= 0; case(state) s0: begin next <= (din)? s1:s0; end s1: begin next <= (din)? s2:s0; end s2: begin next <= (din)? s2:s3; end s3: begin next <= (din)? s1:s0; dout <=(din)? 1:0; end endcase end always @(posedge clk) begin if(rst) begin state <= s0; end else begin state <= next; end end endmodule Testbench //Pantech e-learning module tb; reg clk,rst,din; wire dout; mealy uut(.*); initial begin rst = 1;clk = 0; #10 rst = 0; end initial begin forever #5 clk = ~clk; end initial begin din = 0; #20; din = 1; #10; din = 1; #10; din = 0; #10; din = 1; #10; din = 1; #10; din = 0; #10; din = 1; #10; din = 0; #10; din = 1; #10; #10 $finish; end always @(posedge clk) begin $display(“time = %t din = %b dout = %b”, $time,din,dout); end endmodule Output This FSM detects a sequence 1101 using an overlapping Mealy machine. Code includes state encoding, transition logic, and output generation in System verilog. Applications of FSMs Digital circuit controllers Protocol encoders/decoders Elevator or traffic light logic Sequence detectors in communication systems Embedded system state control Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs) What is the main difference between Moore and Mealy FSMs?Moore’s output depends only on state, Mealy’s depends on state + input. Why is Mealy preferred for sequence detection?Because Mealy FSMs give faster response and require fewer states. How can I avoid common FSM coding errors in Verilog?Use non-blocking assignments (<=), reset all states, and provide default values in combinational blocks. What are common uses of FSMs in VLSI design?Control logic, data path steering, communication protocols, and error handling systems. How many states should I use in an FSM?Only as many as necessary to uniquely identify input history or system modes. State minimization helps reduce logic. Conclusion Finite State Machines are essential tools for digital logic designers. Understanding their types and structure helps you implement smarter hardware logic. Whether you’re building a vending machine controller or designing a VLSI testbench, FSMs are the go-to method for modelling sequential behavior. Call to Action:The Mealy FSM code (overlapping sequence detector) is available at this link. Simulate it yourself on EDA Playground and explore how the states and outputs behave in real time!You can also try building similar FSMs in your VLSI Lab using the FSM Trainer Kit from Pantech. About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With a strong passion for digital design ,FPGAs and ASIC bus protocols. he specializes in FPGA and hardware development, sharing insights to bridge the gap between academia and industry. You can adjust the second line to reflect any specific expertise or areas of interest you wish to highlight! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time. Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning. Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills tothe next level! Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed Digital Electronics Digital electronics click here Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates. click here… Implementing and Simulating the OR Gate. click here Designing XOR Logic in Verilog click here Building the NOR Gate in Verilog click here Designing the NAND Gate. click here Designing a Half Adder in Verilog click here Build and Simulate a Full Adder in

Designing a Binary Adder-Subtractor in Verilog – Complete Implementation Guide

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 12, 2025 12+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 094325+00:0025+00:00Tue, 12 Aug 2025 06:43:09 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Designing a Binary Adder-Subtractor in Verilog – Complete Implementation Guide Description Learn how to implement a versatile binary adder-subtractor circuit in Verilog. This guide covers the working principle, truth tables, Verilog code with testbench, and practical applications. Introduction Binary adder-subtractors are fundamental building blocks in digital systems, used in ALUs, processors, and arithmetic units. This tutorial covers: 2’s complement subtraction method Combined adder-subtractor logic Verilog implementation using dataflow modeling Complete testbench verification Core Design Circuit Principle The circuit performs: Addition when control signal sub = 0 Subtraction (using 2’s complement) when sub = 1 Truth Table sub A B Result 0 0 0 A+B 0 0 1 A+B 1 0 0 A-B (2’s comp) 1 1 0 A-B (2’s comp) Verilog Implementation Main Module module adder_subtractor( input [3:0] a, b, input sub, // 0=add, 1=subtract output [3:0] sum, output cout ); wire [3:0] b_xor = b ^ {4{sub}}; // Invert for subtraction assign {cout, sum} = a + b_xor + sub; // Add 1 for 2’s complement endmodule Testbench module tb; reg [3:0] a, b; reg sub; wire [3:0] sum; wire cout; adder_subtractor uut(a, b, sub, sum, cout); initial begin $monitor(“Time=%0t A=%b B=%b sub=%b → Sum=%b Cout=%b”, $time, a, b, sub, sum, cout); // Addition tests sub = 0; a = 4’b0001; b = 4’b0010; #10; // 1+2=3 a = 4’b1000; b = 4’b1000; #10; // 8+8=16 (overflow) // Subtraction tests sub = 1; a = 4’b0101; b = 4’b0010; #10; // 5-2=3 a = 4’b0001; b = 4’b0011; #10; // 1-3=-2 (2’s comp) $finish; end endmodule Simulation Results/Output Figure 1: Binary adder subtractor output log file Figure 2: Binary adder subtractor output waveform Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Q1: Why do we XOR b with m in adder-subtractor?A1: XORing b with m inverts b only when m = 1, enabling 2’s complement subtraction logic. Q2: What does m control in a binary adder-subtractor?A2: m selects the operation — addition when m = 0, subtraction when m = 1. Q3: Why do we use m as the initial carry-in (cin)?A3: To complete 2’s complement subtraction, we need to add 1 after inverting b, which is done by setting cin = 1. Q4: What happens if the result is negative?A4: The result appears in 2’s complement form, such as 1110 representing -2 in a 4-bit system. Q5: Why is structural modelling used here?A5: Structural modelling reflects real gate-level connectivity and helps understand circuit composition using modules like full adders. View and simulate the full project here: EDA Playground Simulation – Binary Adder-Subtractor Conclusion You’ve learned how to design a 4-bit binary adder-subtractor in Verilog using structural modeling. This design is ideal for understanding the logic of 2’s complement arithmetic and modular digital circuit construction. Structural modeling is widely used in real-world digital design for scalability and clarity. Call to Action (CTA) Try building this on your own FPGA or VLSI Lab Kit.Join our VLSI Internship Program to explore more hands-on Verilog projects like this. About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With a strong passion for digital design ,FPGAs and ASIC bus protocols. he specializes in FPGA and hardware development, sharing insights to bridge the gap between academia and industry. You can adjust the second line to reflect any specific expertise or areas of interest you wish to highlight! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time. Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning. Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills tothe next level! Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed Digital Electronics Digital electronics click here Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates. click here… Implementing and Simulating the OR Gate. click here Designing XOR Logic in Verilog click here Building the NOR Gate in Verilog click here Designing the NAND Gate. click here Designing a Half Adder in Verilog click here Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog … click here Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog. click here Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog click here Carry look ahead. click here Comparator in verilog. click here Decoder click here Designing a Binary Adder click here Buy Course All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.

Demystifying the 3-to-8 Decoder in Verilog: Logic, Code, and Simulation

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 12, 2025 12+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 234325+00:0025+00:00Tue, 12 Aug 2025 05:43:23 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Demystifying the 3-to-8 Decoder in Verilog: Logic, Code, and Simulation DescriptionExplore how a 3-to-8 decoder works in digital circuits. Learn its truth table, Verilog implementation, testbench, and real-time simulation output. Introduction A decoder is a crucial component in digital logic design. It takes binary input and activates one specific output line. In microprocessors, memory systems, and embedded controllers, decoders are used for address decoding and control signal routing. This blog explains the 3-to-8 decoder using Verilog with simulation results. Concept Explanation A decoder converts binary inputs into a one-hot output, meaning only one output line is active (logic high) for each input combination. A 3-to-8 decoder has 3 input bits and 8 output lines, enabling it to represent 8 distinct states.Inputs: a2, a1, a0Outputs: d0 to d7 Truth Table a2 a1 a0 d7 d6 d5 d4 d3 d2 d1 d0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Verilog Implementation // Pantech e-learning // 3 to 8 decoder implementation using behavioural modelling module decoder( input [2:0] a, output reg [7:0] d ); always @(*) begin d = 8’b00000000; d[a] = 1’b1; end endmodule Testbench Code // Pantech e-learning module tb; reg [2:0] a; wire [7:0] d; decoder uut(.a(a), .d(d)); initial begin a = 0; repeat (8) begin #10; $display(“a = %b d = %b”, a, d); a = a + 1; end $finish; end endmodule Output The simulation output will sequentially display the 8-bit one-hot output for each input from 000 to 111, verifying correct decoder operation. Figure 1: 3 to 8 decoder simulation output log file Figure 2: 3 too 8 decoder simulation output waveform Top 5 FAQs on Decoders Q1: What is the purpose of a decoder?A decoder activates a specific output line based on binary input. It is used in memory, microprocessors, and digital displays. Q2: How many outputs does a 3-to-8 decoder have?A 3-to-8 decoder has 8 outputs (2³ = 8), one for each possible input combination. Q3: Can multiple outputs be high at the same time in a decoder?No, in a standard decoder, only one output is high at any time, based on the input. Q4: What happens if inputs are undefined (X or Z)?Decoder outputs can behave unpredictably if inputs are undefined. Proper initialization is important. Q5: What is the difference between an encoder and a decoder?A decoder converts binary input into one-hot output, while an encoder does the reverse—it converts one-hot input into binary. Conclusion You’ve learned how a 3-to-8 decoder works and how to implement it in Verilog using behavioral modelling. Understanding decoders is fundamental for applications in memory selection, instruction decoding, and digital displays. Try It Yourself Run the 3-to-8 Decoder Verilog simulation online:Click here to simulate on EDA Playground Call to Action Explore more digital design experiments with our Digital Electronics Lab Kit.Looking to deepen your understanding?Join our Verilog Internship Program and start building real-time projects today!Download this Verilog code and try variations for your lab practice. About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With a strong passion for digital design ,FPGAs and ASIC bus protocols. he specializes in FPGA and hardware development, sharing insights to bridge the gap between academia and industry. You can adjust the second line to reflect any specific expertise or areas of interest you wish to highlight! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time. Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning. Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills tothe next level! Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed Digital Electronics Digital electronics click here Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates. click here… Implementing and Simulating the OR Gate. click here Designing XOR Logic in Verilog click here Building the NOR Gate in Verilog click here Designing the NAND Gate. click here Designing a Half Adder in Verilog click here Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog … click here Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog. click here Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog click here Carry look ahead. click here Comparator in verilog. click here Decoder click here Designing a Binary Adder click here Buy Course All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.

Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog: Simplifying Input Selection

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 12, 2025 12+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 012925+00:0025+00:00Tue, 12 Aug 2025 05:29:01 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog: Simplifying Input Selection Description Learn how a 2×1 multiplexer (MUX) works and implement it using Verilog behavioral modelling. Includes testbench, truth table, and simulation output. Introduction A multiplexer, or MUX, is a fundamental combinational circuit widely used in digital design. It acts as a data selector, choosing one input from multiple options based on a control (select) signal. In this blog, you’ll learn how a 2×1 MUX operates, write Verilog code for it, and simulate the design using a testbench. This is an essential building block for engineers working on digital systems, FPGA projects, or preparing for VLSI labs. What is a Multiplexer (MUX)? A multiplexer is a logic circuit that selects one of several input signals and forwards it to a single output line. The selection is done using select lines. Key Features A 2×1 multiplexer has 2 data inputs, 1 select line, and 1 output. Depending on the select line value, either i0 or i1 is passed to the output. For n select lines, the MUX can control 2ⁿ inputs. Truth Table of 2×1 Multiplexer Select (s) Input i0 Input i1 Output y 0 0 X 0 0 1 X 1 1 X 0 0 1 X 1 1 Verilog Code for 2×1 Multiplexer // Pantech e-learning // 2×1 MUX implementation using behavioral modelling module mux_2x1( input s, input i0, input i1, output reg y); always @(*) begin y = (s == 1) ? i1 : i0; end endmodule Testbench Code for 2×1 MUX // Pantech e-learning module tb_mux_2x1; reg s, i0, i1; wire y; mux_2x1 uut(.s(s), .i0(i0), .i1(i1), .y(y)); initial begin $dumpfile(“dump.vcd”); $dumpvars(0, tb_mux_2x1); $monitor(“Time = %0t | s = %b, i0 = %b, i1 = %b ,output y = %b”, $time, s, i0, i1, y); s = 1’b0; i0 = 1’b0; i1 = 1’b0; #10 s = 1’b0; i0 = 1’b1; i1 = 1’b0; #10 s = 1’b1; i0 = 1’b1; i1 = 1’b0; #10 s = 1’b1; i0 = 1’b1; i1 = 1’b1; #10; $finish; end endmodule Simulation Output After simulation using a tool like GTKWave or ModelSim, you’ll see that the output y correctly reflects the value of i0 when s = 0, and i1 when s = 1. Figure 1: 2×1 Mux simulation output log file Figure 2: 2×1 Mux simulation output waveform Applications of Multiplexer Used in digital data routing Essential in communication systems Widely used in control logic design Forms the core of ALU designs in processors Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Q1: What is a multiplexer (MUX)?A MUX is a logic device that selects one input from many and directs it to a single output line using select signals.Q2: How many inputs does a 2×1 MUX have?A 2×1 multiplexer has 2 inputs, 1 select line, and 1 output.Q3: What happens when the select line is 0?The output is equal to input i0.Q4: And when the select line is 1?The output becomes equal to input i1.Q5: Where are multiplexers commonly used?MUXes are used in data routing, switching, ALUs, and digital communication circuits. Conclusion You’ve just learned how to implement a 2×1 multiplexer using Verilog. Multiplexers are simple yet powerful components in digital system design, and understanding them is crucial for FPGA programming and VLSI logic development. Call to Action Want to see it in action?Run the 2×1 MUX Verilog Code on EDA Playground and observe how the output responds to different select line inputs in real-time. Looking to master digital circuits with ease?Join our FPGA & Verilog Internship Program at Pantech eLearning and start building real-world projects from day one. About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With a strong passion for digital design ,FPGAs and ASIC bus protocols. he specializes in FPGA and hardware development, sharing insights to bridge the gap between academia and industry. You can adjust the second line to reflect any specific expertise or areas of interest you wish to highlight! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time. Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning. Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills tothe next level! Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed Digital Electronics Digital electronics click here Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates. click here… Implementing and Simulating the OR Gate. click here Designing XOR Logic in Verilog click here Building the NOR Gate in Verilog click here Designing the NAND Gate. click here Designing a Half Adder in Verilog click here Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog … click here Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog. click here Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog click here Carry look ahead. click here Comparator in verilog. click here Decoder click here Designing a Binary Adder click here Buy Course All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.

Designing a 2-Bit Magnitude Comparator in Verilog – Complete Implementation Guide

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 12, 2025 12+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 221025+00:0025+00:00Tue, 12 Aug 2025 05:10:22 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Designing a 2-Bit Magnitude Comparator in Verilog – Complete Implementation Guide Unlocking the Future of Semiconductor Design Description This comprehensive guide covers everything about designing a 2-bit magnitude comparator in Verilog – from truth table analysis to complete working code with testbench. Includes live EDA Playground simulation link for hands-on practice. Introduction Digital magnitude comparators are essential building blocks in computer systems, used everywhere from ALUs to memory address decoding. This tutorial provides a complete walkthrough of designing, implementing, and verifying a 2-bit comparator in Verilog HDL. We’ll cover: Detailed truth table analysis Dataflow modeling implementation Comprehensive testbench design Simulation verification Practical applications Live code example on EDA Playground Understanding the 2-Bit Comparator Architecture Functional Specifications A 2-bit magnitude comparator takes two 2-bit binary numbers as inputs: A = A1 A0 (MSB to LSB) B = B1 B0 (MSB to LSB) And produces three single-bit outputs: x = 1 when A > B y = 1 when A == B z = 1 when A < B Complete Truth Table Analysis A1 A0 B1 B0 x (A>B) y (A=B) z (A<B) Description 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 Equal case (0 == 0) 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 < 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 < 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 < 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 > 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Equal case (1 == 1) 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 < 2 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 < 3 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 > 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 > 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 Equal case (2 == 2) 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 < 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 > 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 3 > 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 3 > 2 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 Equal case (3 == 3) Verilog Implementation Using Dataflow Modeling Module Definition module magnitude_comparator( input [1:0] a, // First 2-bit number (A1A0) input [1:0] b, // Second 2-bit number (B1B0) output x, // A > B output y, // A == B output z // A < B ); Download // Using Verilog relational operators assign x = (a > b) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0; assign y = (a == b) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0; assign z = (a < b) ? 1’b1 : 1’b0; // Alternative implementation using gate-level logic: // assign x = (a[1] & ~b[1]) | // (a[0] & ~b[1] & ~b[0]) | // (a[1] & a[0] & ~b[0]); // assign y = (a[1]~^b[1]) & (a[0]~^b[0]); // XNOR for equality // assign z = ~x & ~y; endmodule Comprehensive Testbench Design Testbench Module module tb_magnitude_comparator; reg [1:0] a, b; wire x, y, z; // Instantiate the comparator magnitude_comparator uut (.a(a), .b(b), .x(x), .y(y), .z(z)); // Initialize inputs and monitor changes initial begin $display(“TimetAtBt>t=t<“); $monitor(“%0tt%bt%bt%bt%bt%b”, $time, a, b, x, y, z); // Test all 16 possible combinations a = 2’b00; b = 2’b00; #10; a = 2’b00; b = 2’b01; #10; a = 2’b00; b = 2’b10; #10; a = 2’b00; b = 2’b11; #10; a = 2’b01; b = 2’b00; #10; a = 2’b01; b = 2’b01; #10; a = 2’b01; b = 2’b10; #10; a = 2’b01; b = 2’b11; #10; a = 2’b10; b = 2’b00; #10; a = 2’b10; b = 2’b01; #10; a = 2’b10; b = 2’b10; #10; a = 2’b10; b = 2’b11; #10; a = 2’b11; b = 2’b00; #10; a = 2’b11; b = 2’b01; #10; a = 2’b11; b = 2’b10; #10; a = 2’b11; b = 2’b11; #10; $finish; end endmodule Simulation Results and Verification Figure 1: Comparator simulation output log file Figure 2: Comparator simulation output waveform The simulation should show correct comparison results for all 16 input combinations, with exactly one of x, y, or z high for each input pair. Practical Applications CPU Design: Used in ALUs for branch comparisons Memory address range checking Digital Control Systems: Threshold detection Error checking circuits Communication Systems: Signal strength comparison Priority encoders FAQs Q1: How can I extend this to 4-bit or larger comparators?A: Either cascade multiple 2-bit comparators or modify the code to handle wider inputs directly: module comp_4bit(input [3:0] a, input [3:0] b, output x, y, z); assign x = (a > b); assign y = (a == b); assign z = (a < b); endmodule Q2: What’s the difference between dataflow and behavioral modeling for comparators?A: Dataflow (shown here) uses continuous assignments, while behavioral would use procedural blocks (always). Dataflow is generally more concise for simple combinational logic. Q3: How do I implement this on actual hardware?A: You can synthesize this code for FPGAs (Xilinx/Altera) or ASICs. The synthesis tool will optimize the logic gates. Q4: Can I make a pipelined version for better timing?A: Yes, by adding pipeline registers, though for 2-bit comparison it’s typically unnecessary. Conclusion This tutorial provided a complete implementation of a 2-bit magnitude comparator in Verilog, covering: Detailed truth table analysis Dataflow modeling implementation Comprehensive testbench design Simulation verification Practical applications Try it yourself on EDA Playground:2-Bit Magnitude Comparator Implementation For hands-on learning: Modify the code to implement a 4-bit comparator Experiment with gate-level implementation (commented in code) Try adding a “greater than or equal” output Implement on FPGA hardware using our VLSI training kits To dive deeper into digital design, check out our: Advanced Verilog Course FPGA Design Workshop VLSI Internship Program About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt.

Implementing a Carry Look-Ahead Adder in Verilog on MAX10 FLK FPGA

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 12, 2025 12+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 540325+00:0025+00:00Tue, 12 Aug 2025 05:03:54 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Implementing a Carry Look-Ahead Adder in Verilog on MAX10 FLK FPGA Unlocking the Future of Semiconductor Design Introduction DescriptionSpeed up arithmetic operations using a Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA) in Verilog. Learn the concept, code, and simulation, ideal for VLSI learners and FPGA enthusiasts. Introduction When speed is crucial in digital design, Ripple Carry Adders fall short due to sequential carry delays. The Carry Look-Ahead Adder (CLA) offers a smarter solution by calculating carry bits in parallel. This blog guides you through the CLA concept, Verilog implementation, and simulation steps—ideal for learners working with the MAX10 FLK FPGA board. What is a Carry Look-Ahead Adder? A CLA improves speed by using Generate (G) and Propagate (P) logic to calculate all carry signals in parallel. Unlike ripple carry adders, where each bit must wait for the previous carry, CLA handles carry prediction ahead of time—minimising delay and enhancing performance. Generate (G): A carry is generated at this bit position.Propagate (P): A carry input is passed to the next bit. Verilog Code: CLA Using Dataflow Modeling Design Code // Pantech e-learning // Carry Look Ahead Adder – Dataflow Modeling module cla_4bit( input [3:0] a, b, input cin, output [3:0] sum, output cout ); wire [3:0] p, g; wire c1, c2, c3; assign p = a ^ b; assign g = a & b; assign sum[0] = p[0] ^ cin; assign c1 = g[0] | (p[0] & cin); assign sum[1] = p[1] ^ c1; assign c2 = g[1] | (p[1] & g[0]) | (p[1] & p[0] & cin); assign sum[2] = p[2] ^ c2; assign c3 = g[2] | (p[2] & g[1]) | (p[2] & p[1] & g[0]) | (p[2] & p[1] & p[0] & cin); assign sum[3] = p[3] ^ c3; assign cout = g[3] | (p[3] & g[2]) | (p[3] & p[2] & g[1]) | (p[3] & p[2] & p[1] & g[0]) | (p[3] & p[2] & p[1] & p[0] & cin); endmodule Testbench // Pantech e-learning // Testbench for CLA module cla_4bit_tb; reg [3:0] a, b; reg cin; wire [3:0] sum; wire cout; cla_4bit uut( .a(a), .b(b), .cin(cin), .sum(sum), .cout(cout) ); initial begin $dumpfile(“dump.vcd”); $dumpvars(0, cla_4bit_tb); a = 4’b0000; b = 4’b0000; cin = 0; #10; a = 4’b0011; b = 4’b0001; cin = 0; #10; a = 4’b0101; b = 4’b0101; cin = 0; #10; a = 4’b1111; b = 4’b0001; cin = 0; #10; a = 4’b1111; b = 4’b1111; cin = 1; #10; $finish; end endmodule Simulation Output Observe the waveform using GTKWave (VCD file) and verify correct sum and carry outputs for each input combination. This confirms the CLA’s parallel carry generation. Figure: Carry Look Ahead Adder simulation output FAQs Q1: Why is a CLA faster than a ripple carry adder?Because it computes all carry outputs in parallel, removing dependency on previous stages. Q2: What is the role of ‘Generate’ and ‘Propagate’?Generate means a carry is created at that bit. Propagate means the input carry is passed forward. Q3: Where is CLA used?CLA is used in high-performance ALUs, CPUs, and processors requiring fast arithmetic. Q4: What is the limitation of CLA?As bit-width increases, logic becomes more complex and harder to scale. Q5: How many full adders are in a CLA?It doesn’t use full adders directly; it uses logic gates based on G and P terms. Conclusion The Carry Look-Ahead Adder offers a brilliant trade-off between speed and complexity. It is ideal for high-speed VLSI design and digital systems where speed is paramount. Whether you’re designing arithmetic units for an ALU or experimenting on your MAX10 FLK FPGA, CLA is a must-know concept in digital logic. Call to Action Try implementing this 4-bit Carry Look-Ahead Adder on a MAX10 FLK FPGA board and experience real-time high-speed addition without ripple delay.Want more logic circuit simulations? Explore our full Verilog series covering all combinational and sequential circuits—perfect for beginners and aspiring FPGA developers! About Author: A. Manikandan is an RTL Engineer at Pantech India Solutions Pvt. Ltd. With a strong passion for digital design ,FPGAs and ASIC bus protocols. he specializes in FPGA and hardware development, sharing insights to bridge the gap between academia and industry. You can adjust the second line to reflect any specific expertise or areas of interest you wish to highlight! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time. Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning. Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills tothe next level! Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed Digital Electronics Digital electronics click here Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates. click here… Implementing and Simulating the OR Gate. click here Designing XOR Logic in Verilog click here Building the NOR Gate in Verilog click here Designing the NAND Gate. click here Designing a Half Adder in Verilog click here Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog … click here Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog. click here Designing a 2×1 Multiplexer in Verilog click here Carry look ahead. click here Comparator in verilog. click here Decoder click here Designing a Binary Adder click here Implementing a Carry Look-Ahead Adder in Verilog on MAX10 FLK FPGA click here Buy Course All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End

SRM Faculty’s Advanced Learning Journey: Exploring FPGA Technology and Industrial Innovation

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on August 6, 2025 06+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:008 212825+00:0025+00:00Wed, 06 Aug 2025 05:28:21 +0000Posted in Uncategorized

SRM Faculty's Advanced Learning Journey: Exploring FPGA Technology and Industrial Innovation Unlocking the Future of Semiconductor Design Faculty members from SRM Institute of Science and Technology recently embarked on a transformative industrial visit that showcased cutting-edge FPGA (Field-Programmable Gate Array) technology and its revolutionary applications in modern engineering. This immersive experience demonstrated how academic institutions are bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and industrial practice through hands-on exploration of emerging technologies. The visit highlighted the critical role that FPGAs play in today’s industrial automation, artificial intelligence acceleration, and embedded systems development.[1][2][3][4][5][6] University engineering students engaged in hands-on FPGA development in a laboratory setting. The Strategic Importance of Industrial Visits for Academic Excellence SRM Institute of Science and Technology has consistently maintained its position as a leading engineering institution in India, currently ranked 12th overall among universities by NIRF 2024 and holding prestigious accreditations including NAAC A++ grade. The institute’s commitment to providing world-class education extends beyond traditional classroom learning through strategic industrial partnerships and experiential learning opportunities. These industrial visits serve as crucial bridges between academic theory and real-world application, enabling faculty members to stay current with rapidly evolving technological landscapes.[1][7][8][9] The importance of such educational initiatives cannot be overstated in today’s fast-paced technological environment. As industries increasingly adopt sophisticated automation systems, artificial intelligence, and embedded computing solutions, academic institutions must ensure their curriculum remains relevant and practical. SRM’s proactive approach to faculty development through industrial exposure ensures that students receive education that is both theoretically sound and industrially applicable.[10][6][11][1] Understanding FPGA Technology: The Foundation of Modern Digital Systems Field-Programmable Gate Arrays represent a revolutionary approach to digital circuit design, offering unprecedented flexibility and performance in hardware implementation. Unlike traditional microprocessors that execute software instructions sequentially, FPGAs consist of configurable logic blocks that can be programmed to perform specific functions in parallel. This fundamental difference makes FPGAs particularly valuable for applications requiring real-time processing, low latency, and high throughput.[3][12][4][5][13][14] The architecture of FPGAs comprises several key components that contribute to their versatility. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) form the core processing elements, containing lookup tables, flip-flops, and multiplexers that can be configured to implement various digital functions. Programmable interconnects provide flexible routing between logic blocks, enabling complex circuit implementations. Additionally, modern FPGAs include specialized components such as Digital Signal Processing (DSP) blocks, embedded memory, and high-speed I/O interfaces.[12][4][5][15][16] The programming of FPGAs utilizes Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) such as VHDL or Verilog, allowing engineers to describe digital circuits at various levels of abstraction. This programming paradigm differs significantly from software development, as engineers essentially design custom hardware architectures optimized for specific applications. The synthesis process then translates HDL code into actual hardware configurations, enabling the FPGA to function as a specialized digital circuit.[4][13][9][17][12] Performance Comparison of Processing Technologies for Industrial Applications FPGA Applications in Industrial Automation and Control Systems The industrial automation sector has embraced FPGA technology for its ability to provide deterministic, real-time control with exceptional precision and reliability. Unlike general-purpose processors, FPGAs offer guaranteed timing characteristics essential for critical industrial processes. This deterministic behavior is particularly crucial in applications such as motor control, where precise timing can significantly impact system efficiency and safety.[6][18][11][8][19][20] Motor control applications represent one of the most compelling use cases for FPGA technology in industrial settings. Traditional motor control systems often rely on microcontrollers or digital signal processors, but these solutions may struggle with the complex algorithms required for advanced control schemes. FPGAs excel in implementing Field-Oriented Control (FOC) algorithms, Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) generation, and sensor feedback processing simultaneously. The parallel processing capability of FPGAs enables multiple motor control loops to operate independently on a single chip, reducing system complexity and cost.[21][19][22][23][24][25] Industrial communication protocols also benefit significantly from FPGA implementation. Modern factories require seamless integration between various automation components using diverse communication standards such as EtherCAT, PROFINET, and Industrial Ethernet. FPGAs can simultaneously support multiple communication protocols while maintaining real-time performance characteristics. This flexibility allows industrial systems to evolve and adapt to new communication standards without requiring complete hardware redesigns.[11][22][26][27][6] The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning capabilities into industrial systems represents another frontier where FPGAs demonstrate exceptional value. Edge computing applications in manufacturing require real-time AI inference for applications such as quality control, predictive maintenance, and autonomous decision-making. FPGAs provide the computational power needed for neural network implementation while maintaining the low latency and power efficiency required for industrial edge devices.[28][5][29][30][6] FPGA Technology in Educational and Training Environments The complexity of FPGA technology necessitates comprehensive educational approaches that combine theoretical understanding with practical hands-on experience. Educational institutions worldwide have recognized the importance of FPGA training in preparing students for careers in modern engineering disciplines. The curriculum typically progresses from fundamental digital logic concepts through advanced topics such as embedded system design and artificial intelligence implementation.[31][32][33][34][35] Laboratory-based learning forms the cornerstone of effective FPGA education, providing students with direct experience in hardware description language programming, synthesis, and debugging. Modern educational FPGA platforms, such as the Altera MAX10 development boards, offer comprehensive learning environments with integrated peripherals, sensors, and communication interfaces. These platforms enable students to implement complete systems ranging from simple digital circuits to complex embedded applications.[36][32][37][33][38][39] The progression of FPGA education typically follows a structured pathway beginning with basic logic design and VHDL programming. Students learn to implement fundamental digital circuits such as counters, state machines, and arithmetic units before advancing to more complex applications. Intermediate topics include sensor interfacing, motor control, and communication protocol implementation. Advanced coursework covers image processing, artificial intelligence acceleration, and system-on-chip design.[32][33][34][35][40][41][31] Engineering students engaged in hands-on FPGA development laboratory work in a university Electronics and Communications department. Hands-On Demonstrations: Bridging Theory and Practice The industrial visit showcased several compelling demonstrations that illustrated the practical applications of FPGA technology in real-world scenarios. These demonstrations provided faculty members with tangible examples of how theoretical concepts translate into functional industrial solutions. The hands-on approach enabled deeper understanding of FPGA capabilities and limitations while highlighting the technology’s potential for addressing complex engineering challenges.[42][8][9] MNIST AI Inference Implementation represented one

From Data Curious to Dashboard Pro

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on July 8, 2025 08+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:007 152925+00:0025+00:00Tue, 08 Jul 2025 09:29:15 +0000Posted in Data Science

From Data Curious to Dashboard Pro: A 24-Day Power BI & Visualization Mastery Series 👀 Are You Data-Curious? business intelligence,” “data-driven storytelling,” or “Power BI dashboards.” 24.05.2025 | friday Maybe you’ve peeked over a colleague’s shoulder and thought, “How do they turn spreadsheets into stories? Well, you’re not alone—and you’re exactly where you need to be. This blog series is built for people like you. Whether you’re a complete beginner or someone looking to expand your toolkit, “From Data Curious to Dashboard Pro” is your 24-day roadmap into the powerful world of data visualization and business intelligence. 🔍 What to Expect Over the Next 24 Days Each day, we’ll explore a focused topic with hands-on tutorials, datasets, visuals, and insider tips. Here’s a sneak peek: ✨ Python Data Structures 📊 Visualizations using Matplotlib & Seaborn 🎬 Netflix Dataset Deep Dive 🧠 Decision Making with IMDB Data 🏏 IPL Insights with Power BI 📈 Intro to Tableau for Advanced Visualization 🧩 Final Projects to Showcase Your Skills By the end of this series, you won’t just understand Power BI—you’ll speak its language fluently. 🚀 Who Is This Series For? This journey is crafted for: Students eager to boost their data science skillset Analysts looking to transition into BI roles Freelancers who want to expand services Curious minds ready to level up their data game If that sounds like you, bookmark this page—you’re in for a ride. 💡 Why Should You Follow This Series? Let’s be honest: lots of courses out there just dump content without context. This series is different. You’ll: 🧠 Learn by doing, not just reading 📚 Work with real-world datasets 🎯 Gain SEO-focused BI blogging experience (yes, like this one!) 🛠️ Build a portfolio that actually impresses employers https://vimeo.com/235215203 ✅ Day 1: Installing Power BI & Setting Up for Success Today, we start simple: install Power BI Desktop, connect your first dataset, and get comfortable with the interface. Even if you’ve never touched BI tools before, you’ll be ready to import, navigate, and explore. 👉 Tutorial: [Link to your step-by-step install guide]👉 Download Power BI Desktop: https://powerbi.microsoft.com/desktop👉 Starter Dataset: [Link to Netflix dataset or placeholder] 🧭 Coming Up Tomorrow: Python Data Structures (Day 2) We pivot to Python to understand the bedrock of data wrangling. Lists, dictionaries, tuples—don’t worry, we’ll break it all down with visual examples. 🔁 Stay Updated Want the rest of the posts delivered straight to you?Subscribe to the newsletter or follow the blog for daily updates, exclusive tools, and final project guidance. Curious minds make powerful analysts. Let’s get started. 💡 Would you like me to generate the full Day 2 blog next, or help you create a blog post template so you can replicate this format for all 24 days? 🎓 Want to Go Deeper? We’re proudly backed by Pantech eLearning, a leader in AI & data upskilling. Here’s how to dive deeper: 📚 View All Courses: https://pantechelearning.com/courses 🧠 Data Science Masterclass (Python Track):https://lms.pantechelearning.com/courses/Data-Science-Masterclass-python-63de391ae4b01420ca46a332 💼 Thinking About Internships? Put your skills to real use with internship opportunities from Day 1. Check these out: 🌐 Data Science Internship 📊 Data Analytics Internship These are perfect for building portfolios, gaining industry exposure, and showcasing your work. The visit delivered substantial value to the academic team: 🎓Strengthened Understanding of AI Deployment on Hardware 🛠️ Practical RTL Design Workflow Exposure 🔄End-to-End System Integration Skills 📘Reinforcement of Academic Curriculum in Real-World Contexts It served as a collaborative bridge—empowering faculty to translate these insights into enriched classroom learning, lab innovations, and student project guidance. Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed VLSI Design Techniques ₹2499 including GST Lesson Duration 13 hours Buy Course Buy Course All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.

Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog: A Beginner’s Guide

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on June 19, 2025 19+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:006 164825+00:0025+00:00Thu, 19 Jun 2025 09:48:16 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Building a Ripple Carry Adder in Verilog: A Beginner’s Guide Description Learn how to implement a Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) in Verilog using structural modeling. Perfect for beginners experimenting with the MAX10 FLK FPGA and exploring digital addition logic. Introduction The Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) is the simplest way to perform binary addition in digital systems. Built using a chain of full adders, it adds multi-bit numbers with straightforward logic. Despite being slower than advanced adders like CLA, RCA remains widely used in low-power and simple arithmetic circuits. In this blog, we’ll walk you through the RCA’s working principle, Verilog code, simulation, and testbench on the MAX10 FLK FPGA platform What is a Ripple Carry Adder? A Ripple Carry Adder is a basic combinational circuit that adds two binary numbers using a series of full adders. Each full adder handles one bit and passes its carry output to the next stage. For a 4-bit adder, four full adders are used in series. Key Concepts: The least significant bit (LSB) is added first, using an initial carry-in of 0. The carry “ripples” through each stage, affecting the next bit’s computation. The final output includes a 4-bit sum and a final carry-out. Verilog Code: Ripple Carry Adder Using Structural Modelling Full Adder Module //Pantech e-learnig // Full Adder – Structural Modeling module full_adder( input a, input b, input c, output sum, output cout); wire w1, w2, w3; xor (w1, a, b); xor (sum, w1, c); and (w2, c, w1); and (w3, a, b); or (cout, w2, w3); endmodule // 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder using Full Adders module ripple_adder( input [3:0] a, input [3:0] b, output [3:0] sum, output co); wire w1, w2, w3; full_adder u1(a[0], b[0], 1’b0, sum[0], w1); full_adder u2(a[1], b[1], w1, sum[1], w2); full_adder u3(a[2], b[2], w2, sum[2], w3); full_adder u4(a[3], b[3], w3, sum[3], co); endmodule Testbench //Pantech e-learnig // Testbench for Ripple Carry Adder module ripple_adder_tb; reg [3:0] a, b; wire [3:0] sum; wire co; ripple_adder uut ( .a(a), .b(b), .sum(sum), .co(co) ); initial begin $dumpfile(“dump.vcd”); $dumpvars(0, ripple_adder_tb); a = 4’b0000; b = 4’b0000; #10; a = 4’b0001; b = 4’b0001; #10; a = 4’b0011; b = 4’b0101; #10; a = 4’b1111; b = 4’b0001; #10; a = 4’b1010; b = 4’b0101; #10; a = 4’b1111; b = 4’b1111; #10; $finish; end endmodule Simulation Output View the waveform in GTKWave or ModelSim to confirm the correctness of each sum and carry output. Observe how carry bits ripple from one stage to the next. Figure: Ripple carry adder simulation waveform output FAQs for Ripple Carry Adder Q1: What is a Ripple Carry Adder?A circuit that adds two binary numbers using multiple full adders connected in series. Q2: Why is it called “Ripple” Carry Adder?Because the carry-out from one stage must propagate (ripple) through all later stages. Q3: What is the main disadvantage of RCA?It’s slower for large bit-widths due to sequential carry propagation delays. Q4: How many full adders are needed for an n-bit RCA?An n-bit RCA requires exactly n full adders. Q5: Where is RCA used?In simple ALU designs and applications where speed is not a major concern. Conclusion Ripple Carry Adders offer an easy-to-understand introduction to digital addition. Though not the fastest, their simplicity makes them suitable for learning and small-scale projects. Understanding RCA forms the basis for grasping more advanced adders like Carry Look-Ahead or Carry Select Adders. Call to Action Try implementing this 4-bit Ripple Carry Adder on a MAX10 FLK FPGA board and observe how the carry ripples through each stage in real-time. Looking to master all combinational and sequential circuits in Verilog? Explore our complete Verilog series—available exclusively on the Pantech eLearning platform. Want hands-on experience?Join our certified VLSI internship program at Pantech and work on live FPGA-based projects using Intel MAX10 boards, perfect for students, beginners, and aspiring embedded developers. Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.

Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog – Beginner Friendly!

By Bala Vignesh RaviPosted on June 19, 2025 19+00:0025+00:0025+00:00 b20252500000025000000 000+00:0025+00:006 573425+00:0025+00:00Thu, 19 Jun 2025 09:34:57 +0000Posted in VLSI series

Build and Simulate a Full Adder in Verilog – Beginner Friendly! Introduction A Full Adder is an essential building block in digital electronics and VLSI design. Unlike a Half Adder, a Full Adder can handle carry-in input, making it ideal for multi-bit binary addition. In this blog, we’ll explore how to design, simulate, and test a Full Adder in Verilog using structural modelling. What is a Full Adder? A Full Adder is a combinational logic circuit that adds three one-bit binary inputs: A (first input) B (second input) Cin (carry-in from the previous stage) It produces two outputs: Sum: the result of the binary addition Cout: the carry-out to the next adder stage This makes the Full Adder suitable for cascading in multi-bit adder circuits like Ripple Carry Adders. Truth Table of Full Adder A B Cin Sum Cout 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Verilog Code for Full Adder Design // Pantech e-learning // Full adder implementation using structural modelling module full_adder( input a, input b, input c, output sum, output cout); wire w1, w2, w3; xor (w1, a, b); xor (sum, w1, c); and (w2, c, w1); and (w3, a, b); or (cout, w2, w3); endmodule Testbench // Pantech e-learning module full_adder_tb; reg a, b, c; wire sum, cout; full_adder uut ( .a(a), .b(b), .c(c), .sum(sum), .cout(cout) ); initial begin $dumpfile(“dump.vcd”); $dumpvars(0, full_adder_tb); a = 1’b0; b = 1’b0; c = 1’b0; #10 a = 1’b0; b = 1’b0; c = 1’b1; #10 a = 1’b0; b = 1’b1; c = 1’b0; #10 a = 1’b0; b = 1’b1; c = 1’b1; #10 a = 1’b1; b = 1’b0; c = 1’b0; #10 a = 1’b1; b = 1’b0; c = 1’b1; #10 a = 1’b1; b = 1’b1; c = 1’b0; #10 a = 1’b1; b = 1’b1; c = 1’b1; #10; end endmodule Output You can visualize the waveform using GTKWave. The simulation will show the sum and cout for all possible combinations of inputs A, B, and Cin. Figure: Full adder simulation output Applications Used as the fundamental building block for Ripple Carry Adders Part of ALUs in processors Employed in arithmetic operations in FPGAs and ASICs Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) Q1: What is the difference between a Half Adder and a Full Adder?A Half Adder adds two inputs, while a Full Adder adds three inputs including a carry-in, making it suitable for multi-bit binary addition. Q2: Why is a Full Adder important in digital electronics?A Full Adder is essential for performing binary addition in multi-bit operations, making it a core building block in ALUs and processors. Q3: What logic gates are used in a Full Adder?A Full Adder typically uses XOR, AND, and OR gates. It can also be implemented using two Half Adders and one OR gate. Q4: What is the expression for the Sum output in a Full Adder?Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ Cin (XOR of all three input bits) Q5: Can Full Adders be connected to build multi-bit adders?Yes, multiple Full Adders can be connected in series to form multi-bit adders like Ripple Carry Adders. Conclusion We successfully implemented and simulated a Full Adder using structural modelling in Verilog. This fundamental circuit is key to performing binary addition and is widely used in digital systems and FPGA designs. Call to Action Try building this Full Adder on the Intel MAX10 FLK FPGA board and visualize the simulation results in real-time.Want to build a complete multi-bit adder? Explore our beginner-friendly Verilog series at Pantech eLearning.Looking for hands-on training? Join our FPGA/VLSI Internship Program and take your digital design skills to the next level! Looking Ahead: Collaborate With Us Email: sales@pantechmail.com Website: pantechelearning.com Exploring EV models & Battery Management Systems Deep dive into autonomous systems & Steer-by-Wire tech Facebook-f Youtube Twitter Instagram Tumblr Let’s innovate together—and prepare the next generation of tech leaders. Mon-fri 09:00 AM – 07:00 PM Sunday Closed All Projects Product MAX10 FLK DEV Board Product Arduino IoT Starter Kit Product dSPIC Development board Product MSP430 Development Board Product 8051 Advanced development board Product 8051 Development Board Product ARM7 Advanced development Board Product TMS320F2812 DSP starter kit Product TMS320F28335 DSP Development board Product More Projects End of Content.